Development Of Islamic Calligraphy Theology Religion Essay Essays

Development Of Islamic Calligraphy Theology Religion Essay Essays Development Of Islamic Calligraphy Theology Religion Essay Essay Development Of Islamic Calligraphy Theology Religion Essay Essay Before the reaching of Islam, the usage of authorship was really minimum in Arab World. The cognition of literature and poesy was spread from oral cavity to talk. This pattern may ensue in the Arab universe capableness of developing such a complicated yet poetic linguistic communication today. However, when Islam arrived, there was a significance alteration in the manner people communicated. The faith trusters ( i.e. the Muslims ) tried to happen a manner to enter the instructions from the Koran. Alternatively of utilizing verbal communicating which may ensue in people unconsciously changed the content of the Koran, or worse, altered it, they used composing in books and humanistic disciplines to enter the inside informations of the Koran. Therefore, although the pattern of authorship was one time non significant for people to pass on, the pattern became an built-in procedure in distributing the instructions of Islam afterwards. Subsequently, the usage of composing to continue the Kor an poetries and instructions was continuously developed by the Muslims and subsequently, became a ocular art of highest order[ I ]. This development, so, enabled people who have neer involved or express themselves in art, could make so via penmanship. From so onwards, the Islamic penmanship could be seen, either sacredly or artistically, on edifices like mosques, graves or epitaphs and as ornaments on armouries, coins, and glass wares. Islamic penmanship has since possessed many intents from the medium to distribute Koran instructions to high terminal prowess works. The Islamic penmanship shows many artistic points of positions. For illustration, the lines have to be sinuate and unit of ammunition in signifier and elegant in the motions of the shots that they must give the feeling of being alive to the people who look at the Hagiographas[ two ]. Not merely in music and poesy that they have to hold beat, Islamic penmanship does every bit good. The lines formed must travel with grace and beat, and each shots and curves balances itself in perfect poise. Consequently, it is undeniable that the Islamic penmanship is the greatest artistic accomplishment in Islamic civilization[ three ]. The earliest manner of composing for the copying of the Koran was the Kufic until tenth century A.D. The Kufic has been modified into many signifiers and fluctuations for the copying of the Koran. It was so continued until the twelfth century A.D. and after which was superceded by some other manners like the Naskh. The Kufic Style Kufic was named after the town Kufa, where this manner of composing first got an official position. This official acknowledgment gave the exclusivity for this manner to be used in composing the Koran. Kufic is bold angular and olympian. This manner, it is easy to acknowledge this form by detecting the use of big horizontal and short perpendicular lines. The horizontal lines are normally doubled in analogue, stressing both the horizontal format of the book and the book. Often, the extended horizontal portion of a individual word can take up a whole line in the Koran. In its crude formats, the kufic manner does non include diacritical Markss that may do inaccurate readings among the readers, nevertheless, in later development, the kufic manner was so incorporated with Markss to separate characters. As stated before, there are many signifiers and fluctuations of Kufic manner. The first 1 is foliated kufic. In this manner, the verticals terminate in half palmetto[ four ], and the concluding letters in each word is elongated vertically stoping in a palmetto on ramifying into foliages. The leafing is farther emphasized by environing the book with an fretted form of foliages ( Fig. 1 ) . There is besides a similar type of kufic called the Floriated kufic with lone little differences ( Fig. 2 ) . Fig. 1 Foliated Kufic manner Fig.2 a frieze with Floriated Kufic lettering of a Koran poetry Another type of kufic is the plaited kufic, which is more popular for cosmetic intents. In this manner, the perpendicular parts of the letters were plaited into intricate knots ( Fig. 3 ) . This type of kufic is normally used architectural ornament although non restricted to that map, it is besides seen in many fabrics and rugs. This kufic is more legible compared to the other signifiers even on the most complicated braids. One more fluctuation to the kufic manner authorship is the set kufic ( figure 4 ) . This is possibly the hardest kufic manner to be read. This manner is normally manipulated and exaggerated in ways to suit for ornamentation intents. The set kufic can be seen in about every interior design of mosques or other spiritual edifices, which letterings are normally poetries of the Koran. Fig 3. Plaited/Knotted Kufic manner Fig 4. A Bent Kufic manner decoration at a wall of a mosque Although there are many types of kufic during the first two centuries of Hijra epoch, yet the development of kufic into any cosmetic signifier was minimum. The manner used to compose the Koran was in simple kufic ( Fig. 5 ) . However, as the clip went on, some Arabic improved the kufic manner and do it more cosmetic by integrating diacritical points and marks ( Fig. 6 ) . For composing wise, the kufic itself differs from the others. The uniqueness prevarications on how kufic possesses a typical dimensional relationship between the perpendicular and horizontal parts. Hence, for the cosmetic elements to the kufic manner, the calligraphist may add foliage, cringle, or any other geometrical figures to the letters, and the horizontal lines so fall in each missive to organize a sentence. Subsequently, the kufic manner was developed into a really cosmetic manner that made it really hard to be used in scripting the Koran. Then the longhand, less angular, and less cosmetic manner was introduc ed and developed by calligrapher to replace kufic in composing the Koran. This manner is called the Naskh manner. Fig. 5 Kufic in Early Koran ( without diacritical Markss ) Fig.6 Kufic in the Koran with diacritical Markss The Naskh Style The naskh manner differs from its preceding, the kufic. Alternatively of being angular, this manner is more cursive and unit of ammunition. Its overall belongingss represent the cursive kufic softened to broader curves and freer expanses[ V ]( Fig. 7 ) . This manner, excessively, is more finished as it has incorporated all the elements that kufic manner possesses. It appeared that this manner has itself so easy cultivated as a cosmetic authorship, which makes the composing itself becomes art, contrast to the kufic where the authorship is ornamented to function the art intent. Naskh manner besides performs a general intent of Islamic penmanship that is to demo to readers the appeal contained in the shots and curves in hope of a cosmopolitan entreaty of the charming and gracious motions. Naskh characters were developed in many signifiers in many states. Its original birth topographic point was in Baghdad during the period of Abbasid calif[ six ], and was spread out to the full Islamic penmanship universe. Its earliest signifier can be seen in the word Maghribe ( Fig. 8 ) from the western portion of the universe and was drawn straight from the original authorship in kufic manner. The naskhy Maghribe authorship can be seen on memorials in Samarkand, Istanbul, and other parts of the western universe. There are besides other naskh manner penmanship in the eastern universe like in cardinal Asia, Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and India. This eastern naskh manner has to it a wider proportion of circle perimeter with the slanting shots flung fleetly into the signifier of Shikasta [ seven ]( Fig. 9 ) . Interestingly, the developments in the many states subsequently produced many other naskh manners. Thulth, Riqa, Zulf-e-Aru s, Gulzar, Taus, Larza, and Manshur are the other types of naskh with more cosmetic and cosmetic touch. Fig. 7 Naskh manner Calligraphy Fig. 8 Maghreb poetry in naskh manner Fig. 9 Naskh manner calligraphy-Shikasta The Incorporation of Decorations Decorations are incorporated in the penmanship for many intents. The first 1 is to do the Hagiographas more cosmetic. By integrating decorations like seriphs, leaflike vegetal decorations, or some diacritical marks will do the Hagiographas more attractive and appealing towards the readers. In Thulth manner for illustration, which is another signifier of Naskh, the shots of the words take the signifier of sticker and curves are fluxing like H2O ( Fig. 10 ) . These decorations can be seen in memorials, graves, and etc. Decorations are besides evident in Riqa and Gulzar manners. The former shows a smooth fluxing shot like a serpent or watercourse while the latter nowadayss cosmetic lines that resemble flowers ( Fig. 11 ) and form of animate beings like Inachis io ( Fig. 12 ) . In add-on, there is one peculiar clever naskh manner of composing called the Tughra manner. This manner is technically uses the sentences from Koran and makes them into the forms of birds, Liberation Tigers of Tam il Eelams, and etc excepting the un-clean animate being like bird of Minerva or hog. Therefore, alternatively of composing the poetries of Koran in the formal manner like naskh or kufic, by decorating, the Hagiographas of poetries have something that draws people attending to it, although the Hagiographas may non be needfully be legible, this a good first measure to present the instructions of Islam to those who may fascinate to cognize more. The 2nd intent is to contrast the pious. The decorations that are incorporated in the Hagiographas are bulk in the stance to honour or heighten the Holy Koran. Although, there is no existent grounds on that statement, one can deduce from the representation of the poetries in the signifier of mosques, strong animate beings, and historical events. Below, we can see an Islamic Calligraphy of a mosque. In this representation, the poetry from the Koran is really good arranged to mime the existent construction of a mosque. This manner, the calligrapher somehow wants to remind people to regularly pray and Tawaqal [ eight ]in carry oning the Islamic beliefs. The message is clearly described in the image to remind the Muslims to honour the Koran instructions and refer to mosque as the holy topographic point to declaim. The representation besides appears in the signifier of strong/beautiful animate beings like king of beasts or Inachis io. Bismillah in penmanship. In add-on, the poetry of Bismillah below was really good calligraphed to organize a bird image. If people with no background of Islamic survey, go on to see this image, they may non understand what the significance behind this word is but they will perchance be drawn to it because of its artistic characteristic that is so appealing particularly with the aureate colour. Bismillah entirely means in the name of God , and normally completed in the poetic phrase Bismillah ir-Rahman ir-Rahim intending In the name of God, most Gracious, most Compassionate. Bismillah in penmanship. The phrase is believed to incorporate the true kernel of the full Koran[ nine ]. Therefore, by integrating beautiful or strong animate beings as decorations into the phrase conveys to the spectator of how meaningful and powerful the phrase is and how the calligrapher wants the spectator to ever retrieve the God of Grace and Compassion as written in the Holy Koran. Last but non least, the representation of historical events in Islamic history. One of most celebrated is the Noah s[ x ]Ark ( Fig. 13 ) . The penmanship itself shows a combination of kufic and naskh manner where both manners blend into a beautiful representation of the Ark. Not merely that the supporter of the narrative is one of the five chief Prophetss in Islam, the narrative besides tells a moral towards the belief in Allah. In the narrative, it was told that Noah believes in God and did what God ask him to make, which was to construct an Ark while people around him mocked him of making the non sense ; nevertheless, at the terminal of the twenty-four hours Noah was right and saved many people with his Ark. This narrative want to be emphasized by the calligrapher to remind people that every bit long as you believe in God, you will be safe no affair what people told you and in order to demo your religion you have to make what God has instructed you to make, which are stated in the Holy Koran. Fig. 10 Thulth manner penmanship Fig. 11 Riqa manner penmanship Fig. 12 Gulzar manner penmanship In decision, although there are many manners developed, the major manners are still the kufic and the naskh which have the belongings of angular, bold, and cursive, round severally. Ornamentation is latter developed from both manners and present artistic point of position and conveys some messages which are intended to honour and heighten the Holy Koran.

How to Write a Bibliography For a Science Fair Project

How to Write a Bibliography For a Science Fair Project How to Write a Bibliography For a Science Fair Project When conducting a science fair project, it is important that you keep track of all the sources you use in your research. This includes books, magazines, journals, and Web sites. You will need to list these source materials in a bibliography. Bibliographic information is typically written in either Modern Language Association (MLA) or American Psychological Association (APA) format. Be sure to check with your science project instruction sheet in order to find out which method is required by your instructor. Use the format advised by your instructor. Key Takeaways Keeping track of the sources used for your research is very important when completing a science fair project bibliography.The Modern Language Association (MLA) format is one common format used for bibliographies for science fair projects.The American Psychological Association (APA) format is a second common format used for science fair project bibliographies.Both the MLA format as well as the APA format have specified formats to use for resources like books, magazines, and websites.Always make sure to use the correct format, whether MLA or APA, specified in the instructions that you receive for completing your science fair project. Heres How: MLA: Book Write the authors last name, first name and middle name or initial. End with a period.Write the title of the book in italics followed by a period.Write the place where your book was published (city) followed by a comma. The city of publication is only used when the book is published before 1900, if the publisher has offices in multiple countries or is otherwise unknown in North America.Write the publisher name followed by a comma.Write the publication date (year) followed by a period. MLA: Magazine Write the authors last name, first name followed by a period.Write the title of the article in quotation marks. End the title with a period inside the quotation marks.Write the title of the magazine in italics followed by a comma.Write the publication date (abbreviating the month) followed by a comma and the page numbers preceded by pp. and followed by a period. MLA: Website Write the authors last name, first name followed by a period.Write the name of the article or page title in quotation marks. End the title with a period inside the quotation marks.Write the title of the website in italics followed by a comma.If the name of the publisher differs from the name of the website, write the name of the sponsoring institution or publisher (if any) followed by a comma.Write the date published followed by a comma.Write the URL (website address) followed by a period. MLA Examples: Here is an example for a book Smith, John B. Science Fair Fun. Sterling Publishing Company, 1990.Here is an example for a magazine Carter, M. The Magnificent Ant. Nature, 4 Feb. 2014, pp. 10-40.Here is an example for a Web site Bailey, Regina. How to Write a Bibliography For a Science Fair Project. ThoughtCo, 8 Jun. 2019, www.thoughtco.com/write-bibliography-for-science-fair-project-4056999.Here is an example for a conversation Martin, Clara. Telephone conversation. 12 Jan. 2016. APA: Book Write the authors last name, first initial.Write the year of publication in parenthesis.Write the title of the book or source.Write the place where your source was published (city, state) followed by a colon. APA: Magazine Write the authors last name, first initial.Write the year of publication, month of publication in parenthesis.Write the title of the article.Write the title of the magazine in italics, volume, issue in parenthesis, and page numbers. APA: Web site Write the authors last name, first initial.Write the year, month, and day of publication in parenthesis.Write the title of the article.Write Retrieved from followed by the URL. APA Examples: Here is an example for a book Smith, J. (1990). Experiment Time. New York, NY: Sterling Pub. Company.Here is an example for a magazine Adams, F. (2012, May). House of the carnivorous plants. Time, 123(12), 23-34.Here is an example for a Web site Bailey, R. (2019, June 8). How to Write a Bibliography For a Science Fair Project. Retrieved from www.thoughtco.com/write-bibliography-for-science-fair-project-4056999.Here is an example for a conversation Martin, C. (2016, January 12). Personal Conversation. The bibliography formats used in this listing are based on the MLA 8th Edition and APA 6th Edition. Science Fair Projects For additional information about science fair projects, see: Scientific MethodAnimal Project IdeasHuman Body Project IdeasPlant Project Ideas Sources Purdue Writing Lab. APA Formatting and Style Guide. Purdue Writing Lab, owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html.  Purdue Writing Lab. MLA Formatting and Style Guide. Purdue Writing Lab, owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_formatting_and_style_guide.html.

Changing an Outdated Educational Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Changing an Outdated Educational Policy - Essay Example The policies set to guide the transfer of technological practices in schools have not been a success. The old educational policies in technology have put computers in schools, however, the system itself is not adequate enough to accommodate the transition from old practices to the new practices. This paper outlines the weakness of the outdated use of internet in schools and recommendations to embrace k-12 education policy in the school systems. Schools have different technology education policies. However, they all have a similarity as the government gives the general policies to be in use, in the respective schools. In Pender County schools, there is a restriction in the use of computers and internet (Student technology policies, 2004). The school policy is that the student will only use the school internet only during the beginning ten days after schools open. This is only after they are aware of the policies set by Board in charge of education (Student technology policies, 2004). A students use of the school can be stopped if he does not sign the technology use policy available in the first ten days. The parents, too, can stop a students use of internet in school. The parent has a right to raise a complaint to the administration that could lead to the students’ ban from use of the internet while in school (Student technology policies, 2004). According to the policy, all the information retrieved from the internet is a property of the school in question. This includes all the emails and internet downloaded information that any student or other staff members may have. The school system has a right to retain the data for a period of three years and even longer if it is business related. As such, it would be difficult to allow privacy in the use and running of the internet in school. The students and employees can be allowed to have hard copies of the data that they may be in need of

Master of Science Strategic Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Master of Science Strategic Marketing - Essay Example pa from North Carolina University considers that ‘a business model is the methods of doing business by which a company can sustain itself, that is, generate revenue. The business model spells out how a company makes money by specifying where it is positioned in the value chain’ (Rappa, 2005). But the fast changing socio-economic dynamics have created a fiercely competitive business environment, necessitating changes in the role and techniques of traditional marketing to encompass broader parameters of business performance. Thus, an effective marketing strategy becomes intrinsic to the management strategy that significantly impacts the overall business performance outcome. Levitt argued that the marketing takes into account the preferences of the customers and thereby builds a solid customer loyalty that result in sustainable customer base that has potential for growth because it continues to satisfy the changing requirements of their needs (Levitt, 1960). While the traditional role of marketing was confined to selling the products which meet the demands of the people, the fast changing paradigms of business have necessitated drastic shift in the approach to traditional marketing strategy. Wilson and Gilligan (2003) have argued that market has become more complex and highly competitive in the contemporary environment of fast advancing technology and rapid globalization. They further assert that ‘marketing is increasingly being conceptualized as an organizational philosophy or ‘an approach to doing business’ (Wilson and Gilligan, 2003, p4). The increasingly changing pattern of society and the influence of technology need to be addres sed in the wider application of social imperatives and included in all spheres of public and private business strategy. McDonald is an exemplary example of using new age market strategy that has shown profit even in the recessive economy! It has become important to introduce effective strategic goals and managerial controls

Type of clothing line Essay Example for Free

Type of clothing line Essay PINK TARTAN Kimberley Newport-Mimran is the president and head designer of Pink Tartan, . The New York Pink Tartan showroom opened in 2004, and the line is now carried at Saks Fifth Avenue, Neiman Marcus, Bloomingdale’s, Holt Renfrew and The Bay as well as specialty stores across North America, Dubai and Seoul. Newport-Mimran studied fashion merchandising and manufacturing management eventually moving into a career in the buying office at the Hudson Bay Company, North America’s oldest retailer. Her style philosophy was clear: â€Å"simplicity is the secret to elegance. † Newport-Mimran went on to product development and merchandising and specialized in denim and menswear at Club Monaco, where she learned the importance of structure and tailoring. â€Å"Execution is key† became her lifelong mantra. Newport-Mimran later moved to Caban where she further exemplified that sourcing is an art: finding fabric and manufacturing makes the difference in luxury design. There she met and married the CEO, Joe Mimran. Today the pair is viewed as Canadian fashion royalty; Mimran launched the Joe Fresh mass fashion phenomenon after the selling of Club Monaco to Ralph Lauren. Womenswear NARCES (The designer is Nikki irthensohn.) Nikki is a Canadian of Persian heritage who was born in Austria, and grew up in Iran and the UK. She holds a Masters degree in Business from Canada/The Netherlands. Her design education comes from growing up in the industry by learning from her mother an accomplished tailor who worked for Victor Edelstein who designed for the British Royal Family, including some of the most iconic gowns of Princess Diana. With NARCES, Nikki combines her very successful business career with a talent and love for fashion design. Womenswear specializes in after-five and evening wear THRESHOLD FT: RANK BY RANI Emerging designer Rani Kim is re-conceptualizing men’s fashion and modernizing the new era of menswear through her brand, RANK BY RANI. Beginning her fashion education at Ryerson University, Kim was trained to appropriate utilitarian design by redefining the structures of masculine menswear. Referencing her Danish design education from her exchange to Teko Design School in Denmark, Kim began developing designs for the modern international man. Her latest collection shown at Toronto Men’s Fashion Week is a strong example of her attention to detail and minimalist execution, which are strong elements of her brand. menswear KLAXON HOWL Since opening Klaxon Howl in 2005 owner and designer Matt Robinson has drawn inspiration from the archives of his legendary collection of the early to mid 20th century. These important, relevant pieces, books and films are studied and echoed in each design The entire Klaxon Howl collection is produced by hand, locally and in small batches using construction techniques rarely seen in modern North American manufacturing. Matt works with quality fabrics that lend them selves to each design. Most are woven on looms in Japan and cut and sewn with pride right here in Toronto. vintage militaria, workwear and sportswear BEAUFILLE Beaufille is founded by sisters Chloe and Parris Gordon. Beaufille is a contemporary line that references historical design elements within a modern context to create a sophisticated tough girl aesthetic. Beaufille represents the girl who has an eye for sophisticated construction, and who appreciates the juxtaposition between old and new. The Gordon sisters attended the Nova Scotia College Of Art And Design in Halifax, and through their exposure to all forms of art, including painting, drawing, filmography, design, photography, textiles, jewelry and fashion, joined up to create a brand that draws on their collective experiences. womenswear

Creation vs. Evolution Essay -- Science Debate Essays

Creation vs. Evolution Since the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859, there has been a continuous debate in the United States regarding evolution and creation. Recently, this debate has intensified throughout America over the issue of whether or not to include creationism in the public school curriculum either in conjunction with evolution or as a replacement for the theory. With such a volatile subject being argued, there are other issues that are brought up at the same time. I find these side issues to the evolution/creation debate to be very perplexing. The many differing viewpoints that my friends, family, and the American public in general believe are incredibly interesting. There are varying strict â€Å"either/or† views, and views that combine evolution and the Bible’s story of creationism. There are diverse ideas where evolution and science can coexist with the Bible, and different commitment and intensity levels to these beliefs. The knowledge a nd familiarity, or lack thereof, that people have with both evolution and creationism is intriguing as well. The most interesting of these questions is the key motivation behind people’s opinions; are they were religiously based or is there something else? The evolution/creationism controversy has been progressing and remains a heated issue that strikes deep into the heart of people’s beliefs. The matter involves the different scientific and non-scientific theories about the origins and development of human beings, which drives to the core of human existence and their relationship with God. It is a personal issue for many, with family, relationships, faith, and morality at stake. Because it is such an individual choice as to what to believe i... ...aspx?oid=2095> [10] People for the American Way. (Research team assembled by Chairman Daniel Yankelovich.) 1 Feb. 2003. [11] People for the American Way. (Research team assembled by Chairman Daniel Yankelovich.) 1 Feb. 2003. [12] People for the American Way. (Research team assembled by Chairman Daniel Yankelovich.) 1 Feb. 2003. [13] Reagan, Charlotte. Personal interview. 31 Jan. 2003. [14] Willis, George. Telephone interview. 31 Jan. 2003. [15] Kutch, Myron. Telephone interview. 28 Jan. 2003. [16] People for the American Way. (Research team assembled by Chairman Daniel Yankelovich.) 1 Feb. 2003.

Executive summary about wal-mart CSR Policy

Wal-Mart is a large company that deals with almost all areas of shopping and there are situated in United States and other parts of the world. Wal-Mart is known to have about 100 million customers alone in the United States and earns billions in profits. In   a situation like this there are meant to reach out to those customers in one way or the other to prove to them that they are appreciated thereby nurturing and maintaining the relationship with customers and other people of the world,   these are the reasons why Wal-Mart rolled out their CSR policy to this effect.As a consumer, going through this policy would encourage them and keep their heart to the store. Whenever they think of shopping, they think of Wal-Mart. There are many superstores around and the once a customer decides to go to, is based on choice. This choice is motivated by the attitude of the store to a particular customer. So this policy should be encouraged so as keep the customer coming back , because this is the only way to kept the business going and growing.In addition, as an associate supplier, I would encourage this CSR policy in other to increase my sales and put money in my pocket and increase the gross income of Wal-Mart.I am very much in support of their CSR policy going by the areas, which there go into to affect, change and better the life of people.CSR PROJECTS OF WALMARTEnvironment: Wal-Mart is a company that manufactures thousands of junks everyday, and in their quest for a safe environment, for all, I think would go a long way in bringing the heart of people to them.Community projects: It is also a wonderful idea for Wal-Mart to work with voluntary organizations like Red Cross, Unicef, United Way, Special Olympics. A good collaboration with this organization would be a speedy way to reaching millions of life all over the world and I know thee action is boosting their image worldwide.People: For a quest to provide better service to customers worldwide, I believe their effor ts on staffs and associates to make them effective would help a lot. Offering assistance such as training, scholarships, and many other programs to make them happy and comfortable.Disaster Relief: Assisting disaster victims like that of flood, earthquake, fire, and disease would is also a good way of exhibiting a kind gesture.THE MOST SIGNIFICANT COPERATE POLICY.However, the most significant of all policy carried out by Wal-Mart is their policy on environment. I give kudos to that. Based on the speech made by their executive on their policy on cooperate policy on environment, I am made to understand that they are to begin the manufacturing of 100% recyclable goods and packs. There is also an attempt to reduce their packaging by 5%. This would go a long way in reducing millions of junks in the environment and would be encouraging a healthier one for that matter.MY OPINION ON WALMART CSR POLICY AS A CUSTOMERAs a consumer who shops constantly with Wal-Mart, the CSR policy is a very lov ely one. It makes me feel like I am not shopping in vain. I just have it in mind that any time I shop in Wal-Mart, I am indirectly rendering a help to someone else and it makes me feel good that I am touching the life of someone out there.But sometimes I seem to wonder how this becomes so possible, after selling at a very cheap price, they still stretch out to lend a help hand, to me, this is heavenly and I will like Wal-Mart to keep up the good work. I also strongly believe that many other consumers out there are feeling the same way. Even as their aid is made public, it makes those that do not know about them to be informed.Reaching out to customer and letting them know that their patronage is appreciated would make them come back always and working on all means to deliver a quality service just gives the customer the mind set that every thing about Wal-Mart has quality.In summary, reaching out to customers in every means possible and making them feel and know that their money is worth it, keeps bringing them back.SURVEY CARRIED OUT ON OTHER CUSTOMERS (BOTH REAL AND POTENTIAL)Number of surveys carried out  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   50Percentage supporters of CSR policy  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   85%Percentage non-supporters or CSR policy  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10%Percentage of undecided  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   5%Percentage effect per-customer shopping rate  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   20% (increase)Percentage (potential) increase in customer rate  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   45%DERSCRIPTION OF TABLEThe table shows that they is a positive effect of the CSR policy on both in the rate of shopping and has a very good potential of increasing customers. This is because everyone would like to shop where he/she would get their money’s worth and would also be appreciated.MY OPINION ON WALMART CSR POLICY AS A SUPPLIERI, as a supplier to Wal-Mart is supporting their CSR policy. Based on popular demand, I have seen that Wal-Mart is a brand on the heart of millions of people all over the world. In addition, as a successful business venture, there are taking upon themselves some responsibility of the government, putting in lots of money to better the lives of people. I believe this is making them a responsible citizen. With this form of responsibility is supposed to be commended because they are giving back to the people what was given to them. Whatever way used by Wal-Mart to improve their excellence and service to customers would favor me as a supplier. Therefore, I believe that engaging in charity works, eradication of poverty, and assisting disaster victim is a well-directed effort.SURVEY CARRIED OUT ON OTHER ASSUMED ASSOCIATE SUPPLIERSNumber of surveys carried out  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  50Percentage supporters of CSR policy  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   78%Percentage Non-supporters of CSR policy  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   22%Percentage positive effects on marketing strategy  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  64%Percentage effect on sales  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   35%DESCRIPTION OF TABLEWith this table above, it is seen that with a personal surveys and questionnaires carried out on assumed suppliers, it is discovered that there would be a very positive effect on the total business outfit if the policy were enforced.The views of about 39 supporters was based on better marketing strategy and the CSR policy would be the best so as to increase the income, reach out to 65% of customers worldwide, increase the aw areness of Wal-Mart by 64% and the gross earning could be increased to between 20% to 35%; this I believe would increase dividend per share.MY DECISION, EFFORTS, AND IDEAS.As a supplier who is in support of the efforts taken by Wal-Mart, I would seek possible way to improve in the products I supply to them. I would support them also by seeking a better packaging to reduce environment hazard thereby aiding the environmental section of the CSR policy. I would also seek out possible ways to join in the voluntary section. To put in my energy where seems necessary.Other ideas I would like to put in are by suggesting that Wal-Mart should also get involved with grass root talents. These can be done in the areas of entertainments and sports. Helping upcoming talents in the streets would also be one of the best and fastest way to reach the heart of the ordinary man. This idea is a very important one because in know that entertainment is a way of winning peoples heart.Programs to this effects could be organizing talent hunt shows, reality TV programs and any other forms of entertainment that you can lay your hands on and you know people loves so much, for examples music, soccer, football, basketball and all the rest of them.With additional efforts as these, we would be exercising a powerful marketing strategy.IN SUMMARY: I believe that all these actions being taken by both Wal-Mart and me a as a supplier is all part of the effort to market the company and an increase in come on both their side and mine. This is because I feel that if they grow, I grow, if they lose, I lose, so it is all about teamwork and service to humanity.EFFECT OF WALMART PRIVATE LABEL ON MY PRODCUT AS A SUPPLIERI have come to understand that the uses of Walmart private label on my products are very okay and do not harm them at all. It a phenomenon that the Wal-Mart private label is seen as a brand of quality, affordable and certified by customers. Therefore, since I have noticed that according to s tudy and experience that Wal-Mart label is always on the mind of customers, I allowed it and it goes a long way to increase sale.Therefore, having the private label of Wal-Mart would put more money in the pocket of the supplier.REFERENCES(1)   Biesada, Alex. (2006, October 13). Hoover's.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.† Retrieved.(2)   Frank, T.A. (2006). â€Å"A Brief History of Wal-Mart.† The Washington Monthly, Retrieved, July 24, 2006.(3)   Staff Writer. (, 2006, April 17) â€Å"Fortune 500.† CNN/Fortune.. Retrieved on July 15, 2007.(4)   Staff Writer. (2007, April 16) â€Å"Fortune 500.† CNN/Fortune. Retrieved on July 15, 2007.(5)   Staff Writer. (2005, October 25) â€Å"Is Wal-Mart Going Green?† MSNBC, Retrieved on November 8, 2007.(6)   Koenig, David. (2006, March 22) â€Å"Wal-Mart Targeting Upscale Shoppers.† ABC News.(7)   Reyes, Sonia. (2006, August 23)†Study: Wal-Mart Private Brands Are Catching On.† Bra ndweek. August 21, 2006. Retrieved on August 30, 2006.(8)   Ortiz, John. (2005, October 26) â€Å"Can Kroger Slow Wal-Mart?† Deseret Morning News. Retrieved on July 25, 2006.(9)   The Rise of Wal-Mart. Frontline: Is Wal-Mart Good for America? (2004-11-16). Retrieved on 2007-09-19.(10)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   †¢Ã¢â‚¬ Neighborhood Markets.† Wal-Mart (http://walmartstores.com/GlobalWMStoresWeb/navigate.do?catg=504;contId=47). Retrieved on April 19, 2007.

Outline of Chapter 2

chapter 2 chapter outline module 5 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior The Structure of the Neuron How Neurons Fire Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers module 6 module 7 The Brain The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communicating within the Body The Nervous System The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and GlandsStudying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain The Central Core: Our â€Å"Old Brain† The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core The Cerebral Cortex: Our â€Å"New Brain† Neuroplasticity and the Brain The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One? Exploring Diversity: Human Diversity and the Brain Try It! Assessing Brain Lateralization The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Learning to Control Your Heart—and Mind—through Biofeedback Psychology on the Web The Case of . . . The Fallen Athlete Full Circle: Neuroscience and Behavior 46Muscular System: Muscle MetabolismThe Deepest Cut Wendy Nissley carried her two-year-old daughter, Lacy, into O. R. 12 at Johns Hopkins Hospital to have half of her brain removed. Lacy suffers from a rare malformation of the brain, known as hemimegalencephaly, in which one hemisphere grows larger than the other. The condition causes seizures, and Lacy was having so many—up to forty in a day—that at an age when other toddlers were trying out sentences, she could produce only a few language-like sounds. As long as Lacy’s malformed right hemisphere was attached to the rest of her brain, it would prevent her left hemisphere from functioning normally.So Lacy’s parents had brought her to Johns Hopkins for a hemispherectomy, which is probably the most radical procedure in neurosurgery. (Kenneally, 2006, p. 36) neuroscience and behavior It took nearly a day, but the surgery to remove half of Lacy’s brain wa s a success. Within a few months, Lacy was crawling and beginning to speak. Although the long-term effects of the radical operation are still unclear, it brought substantial improvement to Lacy’s life. The ability of surgeons to identify and remove damaged portions of the brain is little short of miraculous. The greater miracle, though, is the brain itself.An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread, the brain controls our behavior through every waking and sleeping moment. Our movements, thoughts, hopes, aspirations, dreams—our very awareness that we are human—all depend on the brain and the nerves that extend throughout the body, constituting the nervous system. Because of the importance of the nervous system in controlling behavior, and because humans at their most basic level are biological beings, many researchers in psychology and other fields as diverse as computer science, zoology, and medicine have made the biological underpinnings of behavior thei r specialty.These experts collectively are called neuroscientists (Beatty, 2000; Posner & DiGirolamo, 2000; Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 2002; Cartwright, 2006). Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior are known as Behavioral neuroscientists Psychologists who specialize in behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists). They seek to answer sevconsidering the ways in which the eral key questions: How does the brain control the voluntary and involunbiological structures and functions tary functioning of the body?How does the brain communicate with other of the body affect behavior. parts of the body? What is the physical structure of the brain, and how does this structure affect behavior? Are psychological disorders caused by biological factors, and how can such disorders be treated? As you consider the biological processes that we’ll discuss in this chapter, it is important to keep in min d why behavioral neuroscience is an essential part of psychology: our understanding of human behavior requires knowledge of the brain and other parts of the nervous system.Biological factors are central to our sensory experiences, states of consciousness, motivation and emotion, development throughout the life span, and physical and psychological health. Furthermore, advances in behavioral neuroscience have led to the creation of drugs and other treatments for psychological and physical disorders. In short, we cannot understand behavior without understanding our biological makeup (Plomin, 2003a; Compagni & Manderscheid, 2006; Plomin et al. , 2008). 47 looking ahe ad module 5 Neurons The Basic Elements of Behavior learning outcomes 5. 1 Explain the structure of a neuron.The nervous system is the pathway for the instructions that permit our bodies to carry out everyday activities such as scratching an itch as well as more remarkable skills like climbing to the top of Mount Everest. He re we will look at the structure and function of neurons, the cells that make up the nervous system, including the brain. 5. 2 Describe how neurons fire. 5. 3 Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another. 5. 4 Identify neurotransmitters. The Structure of the Neuron LO 1 Playing the piano, driving a car, or hitting a tennis ball depend, at one level, on exact muscle coordination.But if we consider how the muscles can be activated so precisely, we see that there are more fundamental processes involved. For the muscles to produce the complex movements that make up any meaningful physical activity, the brain has to provide the right messages to them and coordinate those messages. Such messages—as well as those which enable us to think, remember, and experience emotion—are passed through specialized cells called neurons. Neurons Nerve cells, the basic Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. Their elements of the nervous system. uan tity is staggering—perhaps as many as 1 trillion neurons throughout Dendrites A cluster of fibers at the body are involved in the control of behavior (Boahen, 2005). one end of the neuron that receives messages from other neurons. Although there are several types of neurons, they all have a similar strucAxon The part of the neuron that ture, as illustrated in Figure 1. In contrast to most other cells, however, carries messages destined for other neurons have a distinctive feature: the ability to communicate with other neurons. cells and transmit information across relatively long distances.Many of the body’s neurons receive signals from the environment or relay the nervous system’s messages to muscles and other target cells, but the vast majority of neurons communicate only with other neurons in the elaborate information system that regulates behavior. As you can see in Figure 1, a neuron has a cell body with a cluster of fibers called dendrites at one end. Thos e fibers, which look like the twisted Remember that Dendrites branches of a tree, receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite Detect messages from other of the cell body is a long, slim, tubelike extension called an axon.The axon neurons; Axons carry signals carries messages received by the dendrites to other neurons. The axon is conAway from the cell body. siderably longer than the rest of the neuron. Although most axons are several s tudy aler t 48 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dendrites Terminal buttons Cell body M o ec vem tric ent of al i mpu lse el Myelin sheath Axon (inside myelin sheath) Figure 1 The primary components of the specialized cell called the neuron, the basic element of the nervous system (Van De Graaff, 2000).A neuron, like most types of cells in the body, has a cell body and a nucleus, but it also contains structures that carry messages: the dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons, and the axon, which carries messages to other neuron s or body cells. In this neuron, as in most neurons, the axon is protected by the sausagelike myelin sheath. What advantages does the treelike structure of the neuron provide? millimeters in length, some are as long as three feet. A xons end in small bulges called terminal buttons, which send messages to other neurons.The messages that travel through a neuron are electrical in nature. Although there are exceptions, those electrical messages, or impulses, generally move across neurons in one direction only, as if they were traveling on a one-way street. Impulses follow a route that begins with the dendrites, continues into the cell body, and leads ultimately along the tubelike extension, the axon, to adjacent neurons. To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another, axons must be insulated in some fashion (just as electrical wires must be insulated).Most axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon like links of saus age. Terminal buttons Small bulges at the end of the axons that send messages to other neurons. Myelin sheath A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. All-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off. Resting state The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about 70 millivolts within a neuron. s tudy aler t Think of a neuron as a sausage, and the myelin sheath as the case around it.LO 2 How Neurons Fire Like a gun, neurons either fire—that is, transmit an electrical impulse along the axon—or don’t fire. There is no in-between stage, just as pulling harder on a gun trigger doesn’t make the bullet travel faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none law: they are either on or off, with nothing in between the on state and the off state. Once there is enough force to pull the trigger, a neuron fires. Before a neuron is triggered—that is, when it is in a resting state—it has a negative electri cal charge of about 70 millivolts.When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell membrane open briefly to allow positively charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. The sudden arrival of these positive ions causes the charge within the nearby part of the cell to change momentarily from negative to positive. When the positive charge reaches a critical level, the â€Å"trigger† is pulled, and an electrical impulse, known as an action potential, travels along the axon of the neuron (see Figure 2). psych 2. 0 www. mhhe. com/psychlife Neurons 49 Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behaviorFigure 2 Movement of the action potential across the axon. Just before Time 1, positively charged ions enter the cell membrane, changing the charge in the nearby part of the neuron from negative to positive and triggering an action potential. The action potential travels along the axon, as illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to Time 3 (fro m top to bottom in this drawing). Immediately after the action potential has passed through a section of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative.Time 1 Voltage Time 2 ++ +++ – – – – – – Time 3 Voltage Voltage Positive charge Negative charge Direction of impulse Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a â€Å"trigger,† changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive. Mirror neurons Neurons that fire when a person enacts a particular behavior and also when a person views others’ behavior. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse.Just after an action potential has occurred, a neuron cannot fire again immediately no matter how much stimulation it receives. It is as if the gun has to be reloaded after each shot. Eventually, though, the neuron is ready to fire o nce again. Neurons differ not only in terms of how quickly an impulse moves along the axon but also in their potential rate of firing. Some neurons are capable of firing as many as a thousand times per second; others fire at much slower rates. The intensity of a stimulus determines how much of a neuron’s potential firing rate is reached.A strong stimulus, such as a bright light or a loud sound, leads to a higher rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does. Thus, even though all impulses move at the same strength or speed through a particular axon—because of the all-or-none law—there is variation in the frequency of impulses, providing a mechanism by which we can distinguish the tickle of a feather from the weight of someone standing on our toes. Although all neurons operate through the firing of action potentials, there is significant specialization among different types of neurons.For example, in the last decade, neuroscientists have discovered the existen ce of mirror neurons, neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior (Lepage & Theoret, 2007; Schulte-Ruther et al. , 2007). 50 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. Specifically, mirror neurons may fire when we view others’ behavior, helping us to predict what their goals are and what hey may do next (Oberman, Pineda, & Ramachandran, 2007; Triesch, Jasso, & Deak, 2007). Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. LO 3 Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap Synapse The space between two If you have looked inside a computer, you’ve seen that each part is physically connected to another part. In contrast, evolution has produced a neural transmission system that at some points has no need for a structural connection between its components.Instead, a chemical connection bridges the gap, known as a synapse, between two neurons (see Figure 3). The synapse is the space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron 1 Neurotransmitters are produced and stored in the axon. neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages. 2 If an action potential arrives, the axon releases neurotransmitters. 3 Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse to receptor sites on another neuron’s dendrite. Axon Axon Synapse Dendrite Synapse Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter Synapse Receptor siteReceptor site 4 When a neurotransmitter fits into a receptor site, it delivers an excitatory or inhibitory message. If enough excitatory messages are delivered, the neuron will fire. A Neurotransmitter Dendrite B Figure 3 (A) A synapse is the junction between an axon and a dendrite. The gap between the axon and the dendrite is bridged by chemicals called neurotransmitters (Mader, 2000). (B) Just as the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor cell (Johnson, 2000).Why is it advantageous for axons and dendrites to be linked by temporary chemical bridges rather than by the hard wiring typical of a radio connection or telephone hookup? Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior 51 communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages (Fanselow & Poulos, 2005; Dean & Dresbach, 2006). carry messages across the synapse to When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon and reaches a terminal the dendrite (and sometimes the cell button, the terminal button releases a chemical courier called a neurotransbody) of a receiver neuron. mitter.Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the Excitatory messages Chemical synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an The chemical mode of message transmission that occurs between neurons is action potential will travel down its axon. strikingly different from the means by which communication occurs inside Inhibitory messages Chemical neurons: although messages travel in electrical form within a neuron, they messages that prevent or decrease the move between neurons through a chemical transmission system. ikelihood that a receiving neuron will fire. There are several types of neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are Reuptake The reabsorption of capable of receiving the chemical message carried by a particular neuneurotransmitters by a terminal button. rotransmitter. In the same way that a jigsaw puzzle piece can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration t hat allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor site on the receiving neuron (see Figure 3B). It is only when a neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site that successful chemical communication is possible.If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers is basically one of two types: excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory messages make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages, in contrast, do just the opposite; they provide chemical information that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. Because the dendrites of a neuron receive both excitatory and inhibitory messages simultaneously, the neuron must integrate the messages by using a kind of chemical calculator.Put simply, if the excitatory messages (â€Å"fire! †) outnumber psych 2. 0 the inhibitory ones (â€Å"don’t fire! †), the neu ron fires. In contrast, if the inhibitory www. mhhe. com/psychlife messages outnumber the excitatory ones, nothing happens, and the neuron remains in its resting state (Mel, 2002; Flavell et al. , 2006). If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the synapse, receiving neurons would be awash in a continual chemical bath, producing constant stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neurons—and effective communication across the synapse would no longer be possible.To solve this problem, neurotransmitters are either deactivated by enzymes or—more commonly— reabsorbed by the terminal button in an example of chemical recycling called reuptake. Like a vacuum cleaner sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the neurotransmitters that are now clogging the synapse. All this activity Messages Traveling between Neurons occurs at lightning speed (Helmuth, 2000; Holt & Jahn, 2004). Neurotransmitters Chemicals that LO 4 Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior.Not only are they important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified (Penney, 2000; Schmidt, 2006). Neurotransmitters vary significantly in terms of how strong their concentration must be to trigger a neuron to fire. Furthermore, the effects of a particular neurotransmitter vary, depending on the area of the nervous system in 52 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dopamine Pathways Name Acetylcholine (ACh)Location Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, especially some organs of the parasympathetic nervous system Brain, spinal cord Brain, spinal cord Effect Excitatory in brain and autonomic nervous system; inhibitory elsewhere Function Muscle movement, c ognitive functioning Glutamate Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) Excitatory Main inhibitory neurotransmitter Memory Eating, aggression, sleeping Serotonin Pathways Dopamine (DA) Brain Inhibitory or excitatory Muscle disorders, mental disorders, Parkinson’s disease Sleeping, eating, mood, pain, depression Pain suppression, pleasurable feelings, appetities, placebosSerotonin Brain, spinal cord Inhibitory Endorphins Brain, spinal cord Primarily inhibitory, except in hippocampus Figure 4 Some major neurotransmitters. which it is produced. The same neurotransmitter, then, can act as an excitatory message to a neuron located in one part of the brain and can inhibit firing in neurons located in another part. (The major neurotransmitters and their effects are described in Figure 4. ) One of the most common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical symbol), which is found throughout the nervous system. ACh is Michael J.Fox, who suffers from Parkinson’s disease, lik e Muhammad Ali, has become a strong advocate for research into the disorder. The pair is seen here asking Congress for additional funds for Parkinson’s research. Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior 53 involved in our every move, because—among other things—it transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. ACh is also involved in memory capabilities, and diminished production of ACh may be related to Alzheimer’s disease (Mohapel et al. , 2005). Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, attention, and learning.The discovery that certain drugs can have a significant effect on dopamine release has led to the development of effective treatments for a wide variety of physical and mental ailments. For instance, Parkinson’s disease, from which actor Michael J. Fox suffers, is caused by a deficiency of dopamine in the brain. Techniques for increasing the production of dopamine in From the perspective o f . . . A Health Care Provider How might your understanding of the nervous system help you explain the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease to a patient with the disorder?Parkinson’s patients are proving effective (Kaasinen & Rinne, 2002; Willis, 2005; Iversen & Iversen, 2007). In other instances, over production of dopamine produces negative consequences. For example, researchers have hypothesized that schizophrenia and some other severe mental disturbances are affected or perhaps even caused by the presence of unusually high levels of dopamine. Drugs that block the reception of dopamine reduce the symptoms displayed by some people diagnosed with schizophrenia (Baumeister & Francis, 2002; Bolonna & Kerwin, 2005; Olijslagers, Werkman, & McCreary, 2006). recapExplain the structure of a neuron.  ¦ A neuron has a cell body (which contains a nucleus) with a cluster of fibers called dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite end of the cell body is a tubelike extension, an axon, which ends in a small bulge called a terminal button. Terminal buttons send messages to other neurons. (p. 48) message to fire, it releases an action potential, an electrical charge that travels through the axon. Neurons operate according to an all-ornone law: Either they are at rest, or an action potential is moving through them. There is no in-between state. p. 49) Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another.  ¦ Once a neuron fires, nerve impulses are carried to other neurons through the production of chemical substances, neurotransmitters, that actually bridge the gaps—known as synapses—between neurons. Neurotransmitters Describe how neurons fire.  ¦ Most axons are insulated by a coating called the myelin sheath. When a neuron receives a 54 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior may be either excitatory, telling other neurons to fire, or inhibitory, preventing or decreasing the likelihood of other neurons firing. (p. 52) I dentify neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior. Common neurotransmitters include the following: acetylcholine, which transmits messages relating to our muscles and is involved in memory capabilities; glutamate, which plays a role in memory; gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which moderates behaviors from eating to aggression; dopamine, which is involved in movement, attention, and learning; serotonin, which is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain; and endorphins, which seem to be involved in the brain’s effort to deal with pain and elevate mood. p. 53) evaluate 1. The is the fundamental element of the nervous system. and send messages through their 2. Neurons receive information through their . 3. Just as electrical wires have an outer coating, axons are insulated by a coating called the . 4. The gap between two neurons is bridged by a chemical connection called a 5. Endorphins are one kind of , the chemical â€Å"messengers† between neurons. . rethink How might psychologists use drugs that mimic the effects of neurotransmitters to treat psychological disorders? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. neuron; 2. dendrites, axons; 3. yelin sheath; 4. synapse; 5. neurotransmitter key terms Behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists) p. 47 Neurons p. 48 Dendrites p. 48 Axon p. 48 Terminal buttons p. 49 Myelin sheath p. 49 All-or-none law p. 49 Resting state p. 49 Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior Action potential p. 50 Mirror neurons p. 50 Synapse p. 51 Neurotransmitters p. 52 Excitatory messages p. 52 Inhibitory messages p. 52 Reuptake p. 52 55 module 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System Communicating within the Body learning outcomes 6. 1 Explain how the structures f the nervous system are linked together. The complexity of the nervous system is astounding. Estimates of the number of connections between neurons within the brain fall in the n eighborhood of 10 quadrillion—a 1 followed by 16 zeros. Furthermore, connections among neurons are not the only means of communication within the body; as we’ll see, the endocrine system, which secretes chemical messages that circulate through the blood, also communicates messages that influence behavior and many aspects of biological functioning (Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 2000; Forlenza & Baum, 2004; Boahen, 2005). . 2 Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior. Central nervous system (CNS) The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. Spinal cord A bundle of neurons LO 1 The Nervous System that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means of transmitting messages between the brain and the body. The human nervous system has both logic and elegance. We turn now to a discussion of its basic structures. Central and Peripheral Nervous SystemsAs you can see from the schematic repres entation in Figure 1, the nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is about the thickness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back (see Figure 2). As you can see in Figure 1, the spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. 56 Chapter 2 euroscience and behavior The Nervous System Consists of the brain and the neurons extending throughout the body Peripheral Nervous System Made up of long axons and dendrites, it contains all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord Central Nervous System Consists of the brain and spinal cord Somatic Division (voluntary) Specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs Autonomic Divi sion (involuntary) Concerned with the parts of the body that function involuntarily without our awarenessBrain An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread that constantly controls behavior Spinal Cord A bundle of nerves that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back; transmits messages between the brain and the body Sympathetic Division Acts to prepare the body in stressful emergency situations, engaging resources to respond to a threat Parasympathetic Division Acts to calm the body after an emergency situation has engaged the sympathetic division; provides a means for the body to maintain storage of energy sources Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the relationship of the parts of the nervous system.However, the spinal cord is not just a communication channel. It also Reflex An automatic, involuntary controls some simple behaviors on its own, without any help from the response to an incoming stimulus. brain. An example is the way the knee jerks forward when it is tap ped with a rubber hammer. This behavior is a type of reflex, an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. A reflex is also at work when psych 2. 0 you touch a hot stove and immediately withdraw your hand. Although the www. mhhe. com/psychlife brain eventually analyzes and reacts to the situation (â€Å"Ouch—hot stove— pull away! ), the initial withdrawal is directed only by neurons in the spinal cord. Three kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two. Organization of the Nervous System Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 57 Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System Spinal nervesFigure 2 The central nervous system, consisting of th e brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system. Sensory (afferent) neurons Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two. Peripheral nervous system The part As suggested by its name, the peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body.Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. There are two major divisions— the somatic division and the autonomic division— both of which connect the central nervous system with the sense organs, muscles, glands, and other organs. The somatic division specializes in the control of voluntary moveme nts—such as the motion of the eyes to read this sentence or those of the hand to turn this page—and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.On the other hand, the autonomic division controls the parts of the body that keep us alive—the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. As you are reading at this moment, the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is pumping blood through your body, pushing your lungs in and out, and overseeing the digestion of your last meal. Activating the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic division plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies. Suppose that as you are reading in bed you suddenly sense that someone is outside your bedroom window.As you look up, you see the glint of an object that might be a knife. As confusion and fear overcome you, what happens to your body? If you are like most people, you react immediately on a physiological level. Your heart rate increases, you begin to sweat, and you develop goose bumps all over your body. The physiological changes that occur during a crisis result from the activation of one of the two parts of the autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic division. The sympathetic division acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations by engaging all of the organism’s resources to run away or confront the threat.This response is often called the â€Å"fight-orflight† response. In contrast, the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. When you find, for instance, that the stranger at the window is actually your boyfriend who has lost his keys and is climbing in the window to avoid waking you, your parasympathetic division begins to predominate, lowering your heart rate, stopping your sweating, and returning your body to the state it was in before you became alarmed. The parasympathetic div ision also directs the body to store energy for use in emergencies.The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions work together to regulate many functions of the body (see Figure 3). of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Somatic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.Autonomic division The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs. 58 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Parasympathetic Sympathetic Eyes Contracts pupil Dilates pupil (enhanced vision) Heart Slow heartbeat Accelerates, strengthens heartbeat (increased oxygen) Lungs Constricts bronchi Relaxes bronchi (increased air to lungs) Stomach, Intestin es Stimulates activity Inhibits activity (blood to muscles) Blood Vessels of Internal Organs Dilates vesselsContracts vessels (increases blood pressure) Figure 3 The major functions of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic division acts to prepare certain organs of the body for stressful situations, and the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has passed. Can you explain why each response of the sympathetic division might be useful in an emergency? (Source: Adapted from Passer & Smith, 2001. ) Behavioral Genetics Our personality and behavioral habits are affected in part by our genetic and evolutionary heritage.Behavioral genetics studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Behavioral genetics researchers are finding increasing evidence that cognitive abilities, personality traits, sexual orientation, and psychological disorders are determined to some extent by genetic factors (Reif & Lesch, 2003; Viding et al. , 2005; Ilies, Arvey, & Bouchard, 2006). Behavioral genetics lies at the heart of the nature-nurture question, one of the key issues in the study of psychology. Although no one would argue that our behavior is determined solely by inherited factors, evidenceSympathetic division The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat. Parasympathetic division The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency or a stressful situation has ended. Behavioral genetics The study of the effects of heredity on behavior. Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 59 ollected by behavioral geneticists does suggest that our genetic inheritance predisposes us to respond in particular ways to our environment, and even to seek out particular kinds of environments. For instance, research indicates that genetic factors may be related to such diverse behaviors as level of family conflict, schizophrenia, learning disabilities, and general sociability (Harlaar et al. , 2005; Moffitt & Caspi, 2007). Furthermore, important human characteristics and behaviors are related to the presence (or absence) of particular genes, the inherited material that controls the transmission of traits.For example, researchers have found evidence that novelty-seeking behavior is determined, at least in part, by a certain gene. As we will consider later in the book when we discuss human development, researchers have identified some 25,000 individual genes, each of which appears in a specific sequence on a particular chromosome, a rod-shaped structure that transmits genetic informaGenetic testing can be done to determine potential risks to an unborn child based on family history of tion across generations. In 2003, after a decade of effort, illnesses. esearchers identified the sequence of the 3 billion chemical pairs that make up human DNA, t he basic component of genes. Understanding the basic structure of the human genome—the â€Å"map† of humans’ total genetic makeup—brings scientists a giant step closer to understanding the contributions of individual genes to specific human structures and functioning (Plomin et al. , 2003; Plomin & McGuffin, 2003; Andreasen, 2005). Our personality and behavioral habits are affected in part by our genetic and evolutionary heritage. s tudy aler t The endocrine system produces hormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood via the bloodstream.Behavioral Genetics, Gene Therapy, and Genetic Counseling. Behavioral genetics also holds the promise of developing new diagnostic and treatment techniques for genetic deficiencies that can lead to physical and psychological difficulties. In gene therapy, scientists inject genes meant to cure a particular disease into a patient’s bloodstream. When the genes arrive at the site of defective genes that are pro ducing the illness, they trigger the production of chemicals that can treat the disease (Rattazzi, LaFuci, & Brown, 2004; Jaffe, Prasad, & Larcher, 2006; Plomin et al. 2008). The number of diseases that can be treated through gene therapy is growing, as we will see when we discuss human development. For example, gene therapy is now being used in experimental trials involving people with certain forms of cancer, leukemia, and blindness (Nakamura et al. , 2004; Wagner et al. , 2004; Hirschler, 2007). From the perspective of . . . A Physician’s Assistant How valuable would an understanding of the brain and neurosystem be in your job as a physician’s assistant? 60 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behaviorAdvances in behavioral genetics also have led to the development of a profession that did not exist several decades ago: genetic counseling. Genetic counselors help people deal with issues related to inherited disorders. For example, genetic counselors provide advice to prospect ive parents about the potential risks in a future pregnancy, based on their family history of birth defects and hereditary illnesses. In addition, the counselor will consider the parents’ age and problems with children they already have.They also can take blood, skin, and urine samples to examine specific chromosomes. Endocrine system A chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Hormones Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. Pituitary gland The major component of the endocrine system, or â€Å"master gland,† which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system. LO 2 The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands psych 2. www. mhhe. com/psychlife Another of the body’s communication systems, the endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete h ormones, chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. It also influences—and is influenced by—the functioning of the nervous system. As chemical messengers, hormones are like neurotransmitters, although their speed and mode of transmission are quite different.Whereas neural messages are measured in thousandths of a second, hormonal communications may take minutes to reach their destination. Furthermore, neural messages move through neurons in specific lines (like a signal carried by wires strung along telephone poles), whereas hormones travel throughout the body, similar to the way radio waves are transmitted across the entire landscape. Just as radio waves evoke a response only when a radio is tuned to the correct station, hormones flowing through the bloodstream activate only those cells which are receptive and â€Å"tuned† to the appropriate hormonal message.A key component of the endocrine system is the tiny pituitary gland. The pituitary gland has sometimes been called the â€Å"master gland† because it controls the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system. But the pituitary gland is more than just the taskmaster of other glands; it has important functions in its own right. For instance, hormones secreted by the pituitary gland control growth. Extremely short people and unusually tall ones usually have pituitary gland abnormalities. Other endocrine glands, shown in Figure 4, affect emotional reactions, sexual urges, and energy levels.Although hormones are produced naturally by the endocrine system, there are a variety of artificial hormones that people may choose to take. For example, physicians sometimes prescribe hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to treat symptoms of menopause in older women. Other artificial hormones can be harmful. For example, some athletes use testosterone, a male hormone, and drugs known as steroids, which act like testosterone. For athletes and ot hers who want to bulk up their appearance, steroids provide a way to add muscle weight and increase strength.However, these drugs can lead to heart attacks, strokes, cancer, and even violent behavior, making them extremely dangerous (Kolata, 2002; Arangure, 2005; Klotz, Garle, & Granath, 2006; Pagonis, Angelopoulos, & Koukoulis, 2006). The Endocrine System Steroids can provide added muscle strength, but they have dangerous side effects. A number of well-known athletes have been accused of using the drugs illegally. Jose Conseco is one of the few major league baseball players to admit steroid use. Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 61 Anterior Pituitary Gland Produces 6 hormones with diverse actionsHypothalamus Secretes several hormones that stimulate or inhibit anterior pituitary function Posterior Pituitary Gland Secretes oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during birth; also secretes antidiuretic hormone, which increases water retention in the kidney Pineal Makes melatonin, which regulates daily rhythms Parathyroids (behind the thyroid) Make parathyroid hormone, which increases blood calcium Thyroid Regulates metabolic rate and growth Stomach and Small Intestine Secrete hormones that facilitate digestion and regulate pancreatic activityHeart Makes atrial natriuretic peptide, which lowers blood sodium Adrenal Glands Medulla Makes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which mediate the â€Å"fight-or-flight† response Cortex Makes aldosterone, which regulates sodium and potassium balance in the blood; also makes glucocorticoids (such as cortisol), which regulate growth, metabolism, development, immune function, and the body’s response to stress Liver and Kidneys Secrete erythropoietin, which regulates production of red blood cells Pancreas Makes insulin Ovaries Produce estrogens such as progesterone, which control reproduction in femalesAdipose Tissue Produces adipokines (for example, leptin), which regulate appetite and me tabolic rate Testes Produce androgens, such as testosterone, which control reproduction in males Figure 4 Location and function of the major endocrine glands. The pituitary gland controls the functioning of the other endocrine glands and in turn is regulated by the brain. Steroids can provide added muscle and strength, but they have dangerous side effects. (Source: Adapted from Brooker et al, 2008, p. 1062) recap Explain how the structures of the nervous system are linked together. The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral 62 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior nervous system is made up of the somatic division, which controls voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs, and the autonomic division, which controls involuntary functions such as those of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs. (p. 56)  ¦ The autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.The sympathetic division prepares the body in emergency situations, and the parasympathetic division helps the body return to its typical resting state. (p. 58)  ¦ Behavioral genetics examines the hereditary basis of human personality traits and behavior. (p. 59) Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior.  ¦ The endocrine system secretes hormones, chemicals that regulate the functioning of the body, via the bloodstream. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormones and influences the release of hormones by other endocrine glands, and in turn is regulated by the hypothalamus. (p. 61) valuate 1. If you put your hand on a red-hot piece of metal, the immediate response of pulling it away would be . an example of a(n) 2. The central nervous system is composed of the and . 3. In the peripheral nervous system, the division controls voluntary movements, whereas the division c ontrols organs that keep us alive and function without our awareness. 4. Maria saw a young boy run into the street and get hit by a car. When she got to the fallen child, she was in a state of panic. She was sweating, and her heart was racing. Her biological state resulted from the activation of what division of the nervous system? . Parasympathetic b. Central c. Sympathetic rethink In what ways is the â€Å"fight-or-flight† response helpful to humans in emergency situations? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. reflex; 2. brain, spinal cord; 3. somatic, autonomic; 4. sympathetic key terms Central nervous system (CNS) p. 56 Spinal cord p. 56 Reflex p. 57 Sensory (afferent) neurons p. 57 Motor (efferent) neurons p. 57 Interneurons p. 57 Peripheral nervous system p. 58 Somatic division p. 58 Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 63 Autonomic division p. 58 Sympathetic division p. 58 Parasympathetic division p. 58 Behavioral genetics p. 9 Endocrine system p. 61 Hormon es p. 61 Pituitary gland p. 61 module 7 The Brain learning outcomes 7. 1 Illustrate how researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain. 7. 2 Describe the central core of the brain. 7. 3 Describe the limbic system of the brain. 7. 4 Describe the cerebral cortex of the brain. 7. 5 Recognize neuroplasticity and its implications. 7. 6 Explain how the two hemispheres of the brain operate interdependently and the implications for human behavior. It is not much to look at. Soft, spongy, mottled, and pinkish-gray in color, it hardly can be said to possess much in the way of physical beauty.Despite its physical appearance, however, it ranks as the greatest natural marvel that we know and has a beauty and sophistication all its own. The object to which this description applies: the brain. The brain is responsible for our loftiest thoughts—and our most primitive urges. It is the overseer of the intricate workings of the human body. Many billions of neurons make up a str ucture weighing just three pounds in the average adult. However, it is not the number of cells that is the most astounding thing about the brain but its ability to allow the human intellect to flourish by guiding our behavior and thoughts.We turn now to a consideration of the particular structures of the brain and the primary functions to which they are related. However, a caution is in order. Although we’ll discuss specific areas of the brain in relation to specific behaviors, this approach is an oversimplification. No simple one-to-one correspondence exists between a distinct part of the brain and a particular behavior. Instead, behavior is produced by complex interconnections among sets of neurons in many areas of the brain: our behavior, emotions, thoughts, hopes, and dreams are produced by a variety of neurons throughout the nervous system working in concert.LO 1 Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain Modern brain-scanning techniques pro vide a window into the living brain. Using these techniques, investigators can take a â€Å"snapshot† of the interRemember that EEG, fMRI, nal workings of the brain without having to cut open a person’s skull. The PET, and TMS differ in terms most important scanning techniques, illustrated in Figure 1, are the elecof whether they examine troencephalogram (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), functional brain structures or brain magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial magnetic stimulation functioning. maging (TMS). The electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. Although traditionally the EEG could produce only a graph of electrical wave patterns, new techniques are now used to transform the brain’s electrical activity into a pictorial representation of the brain that allows more precise diagnosis of disorders such as epilepsy and learning disabilities. s tudy aler t 6 4 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior A EEG B fMRI scan C TMS apparatus D PET scan Figure 1 Brain scans produced by different techniques. A) A computerproduced EEG image. (B) The fMRI scan uses a magnetic field to provide a detailed view of brain activity on a moment-by-moment basis. (C) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the newest type of scan, produces a momentary disruption in an area of the brain, allowing researchers to see what activities are controlled by that area. TMS also has the potential to treat some psychological disorders. (D) The PET scan displays the functioning of the brain at a given moment. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment.PET scans begin with the injection of a radioactive (but safe) liquid into the bloodstream, which makes its way to the brain. By locating radiation within the brain, a computer can determine which are the more active regions, providing a striking picture of the brain at work. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans provide a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the body. With fMRI scanning, it is possible to produce vivid, detailed images of the functioning of the brain.Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is one of the newest types of scan. By exposing a tiny region of the brain to a strong magnetic field, TMS causes a momentary interruption of electrical activity. Researchers then are able to note the effects of this interruption on normal brain functioning. The procedure is sometimes called a â€Å"virtual lesion† because it produces effects analogous to what would occur if areas The brain (shown here in cross section) may not be much to of the brain were physically cut. The enormous look at, but it represents one of the great marvels of human advantage of TMS, of course, is that the virtual development.Why do most scientist believe that it will be difficult, if not impossible, to duplicate the brain’s abilities? cut is only temporary. Module 7 the brain 65 Cerebral cortex (the â€Å"new brain†) LO 2 The Central Core: Our â€Å"Old Brain† Although the capabilities of the human brain far exceed those of the brain of any other species, humans share some basic functions, such as breathing, eating, and sleeping, with more primitive animals. Not surprisingly, those activities are directed by a relatively primitive part of the brain.A portion of the brain known as the central core (see Figure 2) is quite similar in all vertebrates Central core (species with backbones). The central core is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"old (the â€Å"old brain†) brain† because its evolution can be traced back some 500 million years to primFigure 2 The major itive structures found in nonhuman species. divisions of the brain: the If we were to move up the spinal cord from the base of the skull to loca te cerebral cortex and the the structures of the central core of the brain, the first part we would come central core. Source: Seeley, to would be the hindbrain, which contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum Stephens, & Tate, 2000. ) (see Figure 3). The medulla controls a number of critical body functions, the most important of which are breathing and heartbeat. The pons comes next, joining the two halves of the cerebellum, which lies adjacent to it. Containing large bundles of nerves, the pons acts as a transmitter of motor information, coordinating muscles and integrating movement between the right and left Central core The â€Å"old brain,† which halves of the body.It is also involved in regulating sleep. controls basic functions such as eating The cerebellum is found just above the medulla and behind the pons. and sleeping and is common to all Without the help of the cerebellum we would be unable to walk a straight vertebrates. line without staggering and lurching forw ard, for it is the job of the cerebelCerebellum (ser uh BELL um) The lum to control bodily balance. It constantly monitors feedback from the part of the brain that controls bodily muscles to coordinate their placement, movement, and tension. In fact, balance. rinking too much alcohol seems to depress the activity of the cerebellum, leading to the unsteady gait and movement characteristic of drunkenness. Hypothalamus Responsible for regulating basic biological needs: hunger, thirst, temperature control Cerebral Cortex Pituitary Gland â€Å"Master† gland that regulates other endocrine glands Corpus Callosum Bridge of fibers passing information between the two cerebral hemispheres Pons Involved in sleep and arousal Thalamus Relay center for cortex; handles incoming and outgoing signals Reticular Formation A network of neurons related to sleep, arousal, and attention Cerebellum Controls bodily balanceSpinal Cord Responsible for communication between brain and rest of body; involv ed with simple reflexes Medulla Responsible for regulating largely unconscious functions such as breathing and circulation Figure 3 66 The major structures in the brain. (Source: Johnson, 2000. ) Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior The cerebellum is also involved in several intellectual functions, ranging from the analysis and Like an ever-vigilant guard, the coordination of sensory information to problem reticular formation is made up of solving (Bower & Parsons, 2004; Paquier & Marien, 2005; Vandervert, Schimpf, & Liu, 2007). roups of nerve cells that can activate The reticular formation extends from the other parts of the brain immediately medulla through the pons, passing through the middle section of the brain—or midbrain—and to produce general bodily arousal. into the front-most part of the brain, called the forebrain. Like an ever-vigilant guard, the reticular formation is made up of groups of nerve cells that can activate other parts of the brain immediately to produce general bodily arousal.If, for example, we Reticular formation The part of the brain extending from the medulla are startled by a loud noise, the reticular formation can prompt a heightened through the pons and made up state of awareness to determine whether a response is necessary. The reticuof groups of nerve cells that can lar formation serves a different function when we are sleeping, seeming to immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce general bodily filter out background stimuli to allow us to sleep undisturbed. arousal.Hidden within the forebrain, the thalamus acts primarily as a relay staThalamus The part of the brain tion for information about the senses. Messages from the eyes, ears, and skin located in the middle of the central travel to the thalamus to be communicated upward to higher parts of the core that acts primarily to relay brain. The thalamus also integrates information from higher parts of the information about the senses. brain, sorting it out so that it can be sent to the cerebellum and medulla. Hypothalamus A tiny part of the The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus.Although tiny— brain, located below the thalamus, that about the size of a fingertip—the hypothalamus plays an extremely impor- maintains homeostasis and produces tant role. One of its major functions is to maintain homeostasis, a steady and regulates vital behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior. internal environment for the body. The hypothalamus helps provide a conLimbic system The part of the brain stant body temperature and monitors the amount of nutrients stored in the that controls eating, aggression, and cells.A second major function is equally important: the hypothalamus produces and regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of the spe- reproduction. cies, such as eating, self-protection, and sex. LO 3 The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core The limbic system of the brain consists of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that include the amygdala and hippocampus, the limbic system borders the top of the central core and has connections with the cerebral cortex (see Figure 4).The structures of the limbic system jointly control a variety of basic functions relating to emotions and self-preservation, such as eating, aggression, and reproduction. Injury to the limbic sysFrontal lobe tem can produce striking changes in behavior. For example, injury to the amygdala, which is involved in fear and aggression, can turn animals that are usually docile and tame into belligerent savages. Conversely, animals that are usually wild and uncontrollable may become meek and obedient following injury to the amygdala (Bedard & Persinger, 1995; Amygdala Gontkovsky, 2005).Hippocampus The limbic system is involved in Spinal cord several important functions, including Figure 4 The limbic system consists of a series of doughnut-shaped structures that are involved in selfpreservation, l earning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. 67 Module 7 the brain self-preservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. These functions are hardly unique to humans; in fact, the limbic system is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"animal brain† because its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals.To identify the part of the brain that provides the complex and subtle capabilities that are uniquely human, we need to turn to another structure—the cerebral cortex. LO 4 Cerebral cortex The â€Å"new brain,† responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain; contains four lobes. The Cerebral Cortex: Our â€Å"New Brain† As we have proceeded up the spinal cord and into the brain, our discussion has centered on areas of the brain that control functions similar to those found in less sophisticated organisms.But where, you may be asking, are the Lobes The four major sections of portions of the bra in that enable humans to do what they do best and that the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, distinguish humans from all other animals? Those unique features of the temporal, and occipital. human brain—indeed, the very capabilities that allow you to come up with Motor area The part of the cortex that such a question in the first place—are embodied in the ability to think, evalis largely responsible for the body’s uate, and make complex judgments. The principal location of these abilities, voluntary movement. long with many others, is the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the â€Å"new brain† because of its relatively recent evolution. It But where, you may be asking, are consists of a mass of deeply folded, rippled, convoluted tissue. Although only about one-twelfth of the portions of the brain that enable an inch thick, it would, if flattened out, cover an area more than two feet square. This configurahumans to do what they do best and tion allows the surface area of the cortex to be that distinguish humans from all considerably greater than it would be if it were smoother and more uniformly packed into the other animals? kull. The uneven shape also permits a high level of integration of neurons, allowing sophisticated information processing. The cortex has four major sections called lobes. If we take a side view of the psych 2. 0 brain, the frontal lobes lie at the front center of the cortex and the parietal lobes www. mhhe. com/psychlife lie behind them. The temporal lobes are found in the lower center portion of the cortex, with the occipital lobes lying behind them. These four sets of lobes are physically separated by deep grooves called sulci. Figure 5 shows the four areas.Another way to describe the brain is in terms of the functions associated with a particular area. Figure 5 also shows the specialized regions within the lobes related to specific functions and areas of the body. Three major areas are k nown: the motor areas, the sensory areas, and the association areas. Although we will discuss these areas as though they were separate and independent, keep in mind that this is an oversimplification. In most instances, The Brain behavior is influenced simultaneously by several structures and areas within the brain, operating interdependently.The Motor Area of the Cortex If you look at the frontal lobe in Figure 5, you will see a shaded portion labeled motor area. This part of the cortex is largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement. Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specific locale within the body. If we were to insert an electrode into a particular part of the motor area of the cortex and apply mild electrical stimulation, there would be involuntary 68 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Somatosensory area Somatosensory association area Motor area Frontal Lobe Broca’s areaParietal Lobe Primary auditory area Wernicke’s area Auditory as sociation area Temporal Lobe Visual area Visual association area Occipital Lobe Figure 5 The cerebral cortex of the brain. The major physical structures of the cerebral cortex are called lobes. This figure also illustrates the functions associated with particular areas of the cerebral cortex. Are any areas of the cerebral cor